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the second phase of the plan

  • 1 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 2 plazo

    m.
    1 period (of time).
    en el plazo de un mes within a month
    mañana termina el plazo de inscripción the deadline for registration is tomorrow
    tenemos de plazo hasta el domingo we have until Sunday
    a corto/medio/largo plazo in the short/medium/long term
    una solución a corto/largo plazo a short-/long-term solution
    en breve plazo within a short time
    2 installment.
    pagar a plazos to pay in installments
    plazo mensual monthly installment
    * * *
    2 (de compra) instalment, US installment
    \
    comprar algo a plazos to buy something on hire purchase, US buy something on an installment plan
    * * *
    noun m.
    1) term, period
    •
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=período) period

    ¿cuándo vence el plazo? — when is the deadline?

    a plazo — (Com) on credit

    a plazo fijo — (Com) fixed-term

    • a corto plazo — [adj] short-term; [adv] in the short term

    • a largo plazo — [adj] long-term; [adv] in the long term

    • a medio plazo — [adj] medium-term; [adv] in the medium term

    plazo de entrega — delivery time, delivery date

    plazo de prescripción — (Jur) time limit

    2) (=pago) instalment, installment (EEUU), payment
    * * *
    1) ( de tiempo) period

    cuenta/depósito a plazo fijo — (Fin) fixed term account/deposit

    comprar a plazo fijo — (Fin) to buy forward

    un objetivo a corto/largo/medio or (CS) mediano plazo — a short-term/long-term/medium-term objective

    2) (mensualidad, cuota) installment*
    * * *
    = instalment [installment, -USA], schedule, time frame [timeframe], deadline, term, dateline, period, time limit, timeline [time line].
    Ex. A fascicle is one of the temporary divisions of a work that, for convenience in printing or publication, is issued in small instalments, usually incomplete in themselves.
    Ex. The head librarian had set up a timetable of activities for her in advance and topics and schedules for the courses she would teach at the library school.
    Ex. This not only gives the decision maker an idea of the time frame involved but also aids in identifying potential weaknesses.
    Ex. The deadline for these second phase reports is, I believe, October 30, 1975.
    Ex. The board consists of seven members elected by popular ballot for three-year terms.
    Ex. All we have left of the millenarian dateline is the countdown to it.
    Ex. Library use declines during the June-October period when examinations have finished and the students are on vacation.
    Ex. The time involved in all searches was carefully measured; in test 1 the time limit was set at 10 minutes, while for searchers in test 2 the time limit was extended to 15 minutes.
    Ex. This article describes a city-wide communications network, looks behind the scenes at how it was developed, and summarises what was learned from creating the system on a tight timeline.
    ----
    * a corto plazo = before very long, short term [short-term], in the short run, short-range, at short notice, in the short term, short-run.
    * a largo plazo = in the long term, over the long term, long-range, in the long run, long-term, over the long run, over the long haul, long-run, in the far term, far-term.
    * a más largo plazo = longer-term.
    * a medio plazo = medium-term, near-term, in the medium term, in the mid-term, mid-term [midterm].
    * cierre de plazo = deadline, dateline.
    * compra a plazos apartando el producto = layaway, lay-by.
    * con un plazo de tiempo muy = at (a) very short notice.
    * con un plazo de tiempo tan corto = at such short notice.
    * cumplir (con) un plazo = meet + deadline, comply with + deadline.
    * de plazo vencido = lapsed, overdue.
    * en el futuro a largo plazo = in the long-term future.
    * final del plazo = closing date, deadline, dateline.
    * fuera de plazo = late.
    * futuro a largo plazo = long-term future.
    * imposición a plazo fijo = certificate of deposit.
    * incentivo laboral a largo plazo = golden handcuffs.
    * no cumplir con el plazo de publicación = miss + publication deadline.
    * plan a largo plazo = long-term plan.
    * plazo de ejecución = time scale [timescale], time scale [timescale].
    * plazo de presentación = call for projects, call for papers.
    * plazo de presentación de proyectos = call for proposals.
    * plazo de respuesta = turnaround time, turnabout time.
    * plazo de tiempo = timeline [time line].
    * plazo legal = statutory term.
    * plazos = time scale [timescale], time schedule.
    * plazos de amortización = repayment schedules.
    * política a largo plazo = long term policy, long term policy.
    * préstamo de plazo intermedio = intermediate-term loan.
    * solución a corto plazo = short-term solution.
    * solución a largo plazo = long-term solution.
    * tarifa por inscripción fuera de plazo = late registration fee.
    * tener el plazo cumplido = be due.
    * tener el plazo vencido = be overdue.
    * trabajar con plazos de entrega estrictos = work to + deadlines.
    * * *
    1) ( de tiempo) period

    cuenta/depósito a plazo fijo — (Fin) fixed term account/deposit

    comprar a plazo fijo — (Fin) to buy forward

    un objetivo a corto/largo/medio or (CS) mediano plazo — a short-term/long-term/medium-term objective

    2) (mensualidad, cuota) installment*
    * * *
    = instalment [installment, -USA], schedule, time frame [timeframe], deadline, term, dateline, period, time limit, timeline [time line].

    Ex: A fascicle is one of the temporary divisions of a work that, for convenience in printing or publication, is issued in small instalments, usually incomplete in themselves.

    Ex: The head librarian had set up a timetable of activities for her in advance and topics and schedules for the courses she would teach at the library school.
    Ex: This not only gives the decision maker an idea of the time frame involved but also aids in identifying potential weaknesses.
    Ex: The deadline for these second phase reports is, I believe, October 30, 1975.
    Ex: The board consists of seven members elected by popular ballot for three-year terms.
    Ex: All we have left of the millenarian dateline is the countdown to it.
    Ex: Library use declines during the June-October period when examinations have finished and the students are on vacation.
    Ex: The time involved in all searches was carefully measured; in test 1 the time limit was set at 10 minutes, while for searchers in test 2 the time limit was extended to 15 minutes.
    Ex: This article describes a city-wide communications network, looks behind the scenes at how it was developed, and summarises what was learned from creating the system on a tight timeline.
    * a corto plazo = before very long, short term [short-term], in the short run, short-range, at short notice, in the short term, short-run.
    * a largo plazo = in the long term, over the long term, long-range, in the long run, long-term, over the long run, over the long haul, long-run, in the far term, far-term.
    * a más largo plazo = longer-term.
    * a medio plazo = medium-term, near-term, in the medium term, in the mid-term, mid-term [midterm].
    * cierre de plazo = deadline, dateline.
    * compra a plazos apartando el producto = layaway, lay-by.
    * con un plazo de tiempo muy = at (a) very short notice.
    * con un plazo de tiempo tan corto = at such short notice.
    * cumplir (con) un plazo = meet + deadline, comply with + deadline.
    * de plazo vencido = lapsed, overdue.
    * en el futuro a largo plazo = in the long-term future.
    * final del plazo = closing date, deadline, dateline.
    * fuera de plazo = late.
    * futuro a largo plazo = long-term future.
    * imposición a plazo fijo = certificate of deposit.
    * incentivo laboral a largo plazo = golden handcuffs.
    * no cumplir con el plazo de publicación = miss + publication deadline.
    * plan a largo plazo = long-term plan.
    * plazo de ejecución = time scale [timescale], time scale [timescale].
    * plazo de presentación = call for projects, call for papers.
    * plazo de presentación de proyectos = call for proposals.
    * plazo de respuesta = turnaround time, turnabout time.
    * plazo de tiempo = timeline [time line].
    * plazo legal = statutory term.
    * plazos = time scale [timescale], time schedule.
    * plazos de amortización = repayment schedules.
    * política a largo plazo = long term policy, long term policy.
    * préstamo de plazo intermedio = intermediate-term loan.
    * solución a corto plazo = short-term solution.
    * solución a largo plazo = long-term solution.
    * tarifa por inscripción fuera de plazo = late registration fee.
    * tener el plazo cumplido = be due.
    * tener el plazo vencido = be overdue.
    * trabajar con plazos de entrega estrictos = work to + deadlines.

    * * *
    A (de tiempo) period
    hay un plazo de diez días para reclamar there is a ten-day period in which to register complaints
    el plazo de inscripción se cierra el próximo lunes registration closes next Monday, the deadline for registration is next Monday
    tenemos un mes de plazo para pagar we have one month (in which) to pay
    nos han dado de plazo hasta el día 10 they've given us the 10th as a deadline, they've given us until the 10th to pay ( o to finish etc)
    el plazo de admisión finaliza el 20 de octubre the closing date for entries is the 20th of October
    dentro del plazo estipulado within the stipulated period
    cuenta/depósito a plazo fijo ( Fin) fixed term account/deposit
    comprar a plazo fijo ( Fin) to buy forward
    un objetivo a corto/largo/medio or ( RPl) mediano plazo a short-term/long-term/medium-term objective
    Compuestos:
    immovable deadline
    fixed deadline
    B (mensualidad, cuota) installment*
    pagar a plazos to pay in installments
    lo compré a plazos I bought it on installments o ( BrE) on hire purchase
    le quedan por pagar tres plazos del coche he still has three payments to make on the car
    * * *

     

    plazo sustantivo masculino
    1 ( de tiempo) period;

    el plazo vence el próximo lunes (para proyecto, trabajo) the deadline is next Monday;

    ( para entrega de solicitudes) next Monday is the closing date;

    un objetivo a corto/largo plazo a short-term/long-term objective
    2 (mensualidad, cuota) installment( conjugate installment);

    comprar a plazos to buy on installments
    plazo sustantivo masculino
    1 (de tiempo) term: el plazo termina mañana, tomorrow is the deadline
    estamos fuera de plazo, we're past the deadline
    2 (cuota) instalment, US installment
    comprar a plazos, to buy on hire purchase
    US to buy on an installment plan
    ' plazo' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    ampliar
    - ampliación
    - cumplir
    - cumplida
    - cumplido
    - cumplirse
    - dentro
    - destiempo
    - fuera
    - imposición
    - inscripción
    - prórroga
    - término
    - transcurso
    - vencer
    - vencida
    - vencido
    - vencimiento
    - abreviar
    - alargar
    - caducar
    - concluir
    - contado
    - cuota
    - entrega
    - extender
    - extensión
    - larga
    - medio
    - pactar
    - para
    - prolongar
    English:
    allow
    - amortize
    - deadline
    - delivery
    - expire
    - forward
    - hard-pressed
    - installment
    - instalment
    - long-range
    - long-term
    - manuscript
    - medium-term
    - payment
    - short
    - short-term
    - term
    - time limit
    - dead
    - fixed
    - long
    - medium
    - notice
    - over
    - period
    - repayment
    - time
    * * *
    plazo nm
    1. [de tiempo] period (of time);
    en el plazo de un mes within a month;
    mañana termina el plazo de inscripción the deadline for registration is tomorrow;
    tenemos de plazo hasta el domingo we have until Sunday;
    hay un plazo de dos semanas para inscribirse there is a period of two weeks for registration;
    el plazo previsto the target date;
    a corto/medio o RP [m5]mediano/largo plazo in the short/medium/long term;
    una solución a corto/largo plazo a short-/long-term solution;
    en breve plazo within a short time;
    invertir dinero a plazo fijo to invest money for a fixed term
    Com plazo de entrega delivery time
    2. [de dinero] instalment;
    comprar a plazos to buy on Br hire purchase o US an installment plan;
    pagar a plazos to pay in instalments
    plazo mensual monthly instalment o repayment
    * * *
    f
    1 de tiempo period;
    a corto/largo plazo in the short/long term;
    en el plazo de tres meses within three months
    2 ( pago) installment, Br
    instalment;
    a plazos in installments;
    meter su dinero a plazo fijo put one’s money on fixed-term deposit
    * * *
    plazo nm
    1) : period, term
    un plazo de cinco días: a period of five days
    a largo plazo: long-term
    2) abono: installment
    pagar a plazos: to pay in installments
    * * *
    2. (pago) instalment
    si me compro un coche, lo pagaré a plazos if I buy a car, I'll pay for it in instalments

    Spanish-English dictionary > plazo

  • 3 etapa

    f.
    stage.
    las últimas etapas the final stages
    por etapas in stages
    quemar etapas to come on in leaps and bounds, to progress rapidly
    está pasando una mala etapa he's going through a bad patch
    * * *
    1 period, stage
    2 (parada) stop, stage
    3 DEPORTE leg, stage
    \
    por etapas in stages
    quemar etapas figurado to get on in leaps and bounds
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) [de viaje] stage
    2) (=fase) stage, phase

    desarrollo por etapas — phased development, development in stages

    3) (Dep) leg, lap
    4) (Mil) stopping place
    5) [de cohete] stage
    * * *
    1) ( en viaje) stage; (en ciclismo, rally) leg, stage
    2) ( de proceso) stage, phase

    la etapa más feliz de mi vida — the best o happiest time of my life

    * * *
    = phase, stage, step, chapter.
    Ex. This planning phase involves moving from a vague impression that a thesaurus might be useful to a fairly precise profile for the thesaurus.
    Ex. The first stage in the choice of access points must be the definition of an author.
    Ex. The first step in assigning intellectual responsibility to a corporate body must be a definition of a corporate body.
    Ex. The late 18th century heyday of aristocratic libraries was a brief but important chapter in Hungarian library history.
    ----
    * eliminar por etapas = phase out.
    * empezar una nueva etapa en la vida = turn over + a new page, turn over + a new leaf.
    * en tres etapas = three-step.
    * en varias etapas = multistage [multi-stage], multi-step.
    * etapa anterior a la impresión = prepress [pre-press].
    * etapa de desarollo = stage of development.
    * etapa de la vida = life stage.
    * etapa de planificación = planning stage.
    * etapa final = output stage.
    * etapa inicial = input stage.
    * llegar a una etapa = reach + point.
    * marcar una etapa = mark + a stage.
    * por etapas = staged.
    * primera etapa = early days.
    * subetapa = sub-stage.
    * superar la etapa de = move on from.
    * volver a la etapa de planificación = return to + the drawing boards, back to the drawing board.
    * * *
    1) ( en viaje) stage; (en ciclismo, rally) leg, stage
    2) ( de proceso) stage, phase

    la etapa más feliz de mi vida — the best o happiest time of my life

    * * *
    = phase, stage, step, chapter.

    Ex: This planning phase involves moving from a vague impression that a thesaurus might be useful to a fairly precise profile for the thesaurus.

    Ex: The first stage in the choice of access points must be the definition of an author.
    Ex: The first step in assigning intellectual responsibility to a corporate body must be a definition of a corporate body.
    Ex: The late 18th century heyday of aristocratic libraries was a brief but important chapter in Hungarian library history.
    * eliminar por etapas = phase out.
    * empezar una nueva etapa en la vida = turn over + a new page, turn over + a new leaf.
    * en tres etapas = three-step.
    * en varias etapas = multistage [multi-stage], multi-step.
    * etapa anterior a la impresión = prepress [pre-press].
    * etapa de desarollo = stage of development.
    * etapa de la vida = life stage.
    * etapa de planificación = planning stage.
    * etapa final = output stage.
    * etapa inicial = input stage.
    * llegar a una etapa = reach + point.
    * marcar una etapa = mark + a stage.
    * por etapas = staged.
    * primera etapa = early days.
    * subetapa = sub-stage.
    * superar la etapa de = move on from.
    * volver a la etapa de planificación = return to + the drawing boards, back to the drawing board.

    * * *
    A (en un viaje, recorrido) stage; (en ciclismo, un rally) leg, stage
    hicimos el viaje en varias etapas/por etapas we did the trip in stages
    Compuesto:
    opening time-trial
    B (de un proceso) stage, phase
    la etapa más feliz de mi vida the best o happiest time o period of my life
    C (de un cohete, misil) stage
    * * *

     

    etapa sustantivo femenino
    stage;

    la etapa más feliz de mi vida the best o happiest time of my life
    etapa sustantivo femenino stage, phase: haremos el trabajo por etapas, we'll do the work in stages

    ' etapa' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    atravesar
    - contrarreloj
    - estadio
    - extensa
    - extenso
    - fase
    - interfase
    - transición
    - clasificación
    - clasificar
    - entrada
    - entrar
    - intermedio
    - ronda
    - superar
    - trámite
    English:
    degree
    - early
    - growing
    - lap
    - leg
    - stage
    - go
    - past
    - preliminary
    * * *
    etapa nf
    1. [trayecto, fase] stage;
    está pasando una mala etapa he's going through a bad patch;
    por etapas in stages;
    la reforma educativa será implantada por etapas the educational reforms will be introduced in stages
    2. Dep stage;
    una vuelta ciclista por etapas a staged cycle race
    etapa ciclista stage [of cycle race];
    etapa contrarreloj [en ciclismo] time trial;
    etapa de montaña [en ciclismo] mountain stage;
    etapa prólogo [en ciclismo] prologue
    * * *
    f
    1 DEP stage, leg
    2 stage;
    por etapas in stages;
    quemar etapas cut corners
    * * *
    etapa nf
    fase: stage, phase
    * * *
    etapa n stage

    Spanish-English dictionary > etapa

  • 4 modificar

    v.
    1 to alter.
    2 to modify (grammar).
    Lisa modificó el vestido Lisa modified the dress.
    3 to amend, to revise.
    Ricardo modificó su conducta Richard amended his behavior.
    * * *
    Conjugation model [ SACAR], like link=sacar sacar
    1 to alter, modify
    * * *
    verb
    to modify, alter
    * * *
    VT [+ producto, vehículo] to modify; [+ texto] to change, alter; [+ vida] to change
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    a) < aparato> to modify; < plan> to change; <horario/ley> to change, alter
    b) (Ling) to modify
    2.
    modificarsev pron to change, alter
    * * *
    = adjust, alter, change, edit, modify, doctor, redraw [re-draw], repackage [re-package], fine tune [fine-tune], repack, redact.
    Ex. The brightness can be adjusted by turning the two knobs at the lower right of the screen.
    Ex. Even the same collection some years on will have altered, and the device, in order to remain effective, must evolve in keeping with the development of the collection.
    Ex. A scheme should permit changes in terminology as subjects change their names.
    Ex. During the construction of a thesaurus, the computer can be enlisted to sort, merge, edit and compare terms.
    Ex. This revised chapter modified the code in keeping with the recently agreed ISBD(M), and proposed a slightly different description for monographs.
    Ex. The purpose of the present paper is to determine the effect of doctoring AACR2 in this manner.
    Ex. the Internet has fundamentally redrawn the way in which people can organize themselves.
    Ex. The objective of the second phase is to synthesise, repackage and disseminate findings for various audiences.
    Ex. These statistics have been used to fine tune the system and improve response time = Se han usado estos resultados estadísticos para ajustar el funcionamiento del sistema y mejorar el tiempo de respuesta.
    Ex. The problem posed by the increasing number of documents may be solved by repacking them photographically into smaller categories.
    Ex. Also, the movie has been redacted by the producer -- it ends with a horrifying montage of real photos of dead and wounded Iraqis.
    ----
    * modificar el precio = reprice.
    * modificar un registro = amend + record.
    * modificar y adaptar = repackage [re-package], repack.
    * sin modificar = unmodified, unaltered, unedited.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    a) < aparato> to modify; < plan> to change; <horario/ley> to change, alter
    b) (Ling) to modify
    2.
    modificarsev pron to change, alter
    * * *
    = adjust, alter, change, edit, modify, doctor, redraw [re-draw], repackage [re-package], fine tune [fine-tune], repack, redact.

    Ex: The brightness can be adjusted by turning the two knobs at the lower right of the screen.

    Ex: Even the same collection some years on will have altered, and the device, in order to remain effective, must evolve in keeping with the development of the collection.
    Ex: A scheme should permit changes in terminology as subjects change their names.
    Ex: During the construction of a thesaurus, the computer can be enlisted to sort, merge, edit and compare terms.
    Ex: This revised chapter modified the code in keeping with the recently agreed ISBD(M), and proposed a slightly different description for monographs.
    Ex: The purpose of the present paper is to determine the effect of doctoring AACR2 in this manner.
    Ex: the Internet has fundamentally redrawn the way in which people can organize themselves.
    Ex: The objective of the second phase is to synthesise, repackage and disseminate findings for various audiences.
    Ex: These statistics have been used to fine tune the system and improve response time = Se han usado estos resultados estadísticos para ajustar el funcionamiento del sistema y mejorar el tiempo de respuesta.
    Ex: The problem posed by the increasing number of documents may be solved by repacking them photographically into smaller categories.
    Ex: Also, the movie has been redacted by the producer -- it ends with a horrifying montage of real photos of dead and wounded Iraqis.
    * modificar el precio = reprice.
    * modificar un registro = amend + record.
    * modificar y adaptar = repackage [re-package], repack.
    * sin modificar = unmodified, unaltered, unedited.

    * * *
    modificar [A2 ]
    vt
    1 ‹aparato› to modify; ‹plan› to change; ‹horario/ley› to change, alter
    la dosis puede modificarse según criterio médico the dosage may be altered o varied on the advice of your doctor
    la entonación modifica el sentido de la frase the intonation alters o changes the meaning of the sentence
    2 ( Ling) to modify
    to change, alter
    * * *

     

    modificar ( conjugate modificar) verbo transitivo
    a) ‹ aparato› to modify;

    ‹ plan› to change;
    ‹horario/ley› to change, alter
    b) (Ling) to modify;


    modificarseverbo pronominal
    to change, alter
    modificar verbo transitivo to modify, alter: han modificado el texto sustancialmente, the text was altered substantially
    ' modificar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    cambiar
    - editar
    English:
    adjust
    - alter
    - modify
    - qualify
    - revise
    * * *
    1. [diseño] to alter, to modify;
    [plan, ley] to change; [programa] to change, to alter; [presupuesto] to revise;
    modificar genéticamente to genetically modify
    2. Gram to modify
    * * *
    v/t modify
    * * *
    modificar {72} vt
    alterar: to modify, to alter, to adapt
    * * *
    modificar vb to alter

    Spanish-English dictionary > modificar

  • 5 Empire, Portuguese overseas

    (1415-1975)
       Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.
       There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).
       With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.
       The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.
       Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:
       • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)
       Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.
       Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).
       • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.
       • West Africa
       • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.
       • Middle East
       Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.
       Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.
       Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.
       Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.
       • India
       • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.
       • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.
       • East Indies
       • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.
       After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.
       Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.
       Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.
       The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.
       Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.
       In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Empire, Portuguese overseas

  • 6 rzu|t

    m (G rzutu) 1. (rzucenie) throw
    - rzut kostką a roll a. throw of the dice
    - rzut monetą a toss-up
    - celny/niecelny rzut an accurate/a wide throw
    - rzut był celny the throw was on target
    - o a. na rzut kamieniem a. beretem od czegoś pot. a stone’s throw from somewhere, within spitting distance of sth
    2. Sport (w piłce nożnej) kick; (w koszykówce, piłce ręcznej) throw
    - rzut karny/wolny/rożny a penalty/free/corner kick
    - wykonać rzut karny/wolny/rożny to take a penalty/free/corner kick
    - podyktować rzut karny/wolny/rożny to award a penalty/free/corner kick
    - rzuty osobiste free throws
    3. Sport (dyscyplina) throw
    - rzut młotem/dyskiem/oszczepem the hammer/the discus/the javelin
    - mistrz świata w rzucie młotem/dyskiem/oszczepem the world hammer/discus/javelin champion
    4. (skok) lunge
    - wykonać rzut do przodu to make a lunge forward
    - dopaść do czegoś jednym rzutem to get somewhere in one leap
    - rzut na taśmę przen. a last-minute attempt
    - wygrać rzutem na taśmę Sport., przen. to win by inches
    5. Sport (w dżudo, zapasach) throw
    - rzut przez bark/biodro a shoulder/hip throw
    6. (etap) stage; (część) part; (grupa osób) group
    - robić coś w dwóch/trzech rzutach to do sth in two/three stages
    - pierwszy rzut ochotników the first group of volunteers
    - pierwszy/drugi rzut natarcia Wojsk. the first/second attack
    - zrobić coś w pierwszym/kolejnym rzucie to do sth first/at a later stage
    7. Med. phase
    - pierwszy/drugi rzut choroby the first/second phase of the disease
    8. Mat. (odwzorowanie, wynik odwzorowania) projection
    - rzut na płaszczyznę the projection onto a plane
    9. Archit. projection
    - rzut pionowy budynku an elevation of a building
    - rzut poziomy budynku a plan of a building
    10. Zool. litter
    - dwa rzuty rocznie two litters a year
    ■ rzut oka glance
    - wystarczył jeden rzut oka, żeby… one glance was enough to…
    - na pierwszy rzut oka at first glance

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > rzu|t

  • 7 awamu

    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [Swahili Word] awamu
    [Swahili Plural] awamu
    [English Word] part
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 9/10
    [Swahili Definition] sehemu
    [Swahili Example] Majengo ya chuo hiki yamekuwa yakirekebishwa na awamu ya kwanza itakamilika mwaka ujao [Masomo 362]
    [English Example] The buildings of this college are being repaired and the first part will be complete next year.
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    [Swahili Word] awamu
    [Swahili Plural] awamu
    [English Word] phase
    [English Plural] phases
    [Part of Speech] noun
    [Class] 9/10
    [Swahili Definition] sehemu
    [Swahili Example] Awamu ya pili ya mpango itaanza kutekelezwa mwaka ujao.
    [English Example] The second phase of the plan will start to be implemented next year.
    ------------------------------------------------------------

    Swahili-english dictionary > awamu

  • 8 разрабатывать

    •

    Newton elaborated (or worked out) his own theory of gravitation.

    •

    In the second phase Kepler set up a theory for the longitudes of Mars.

    •

    This technique was developed (or devised, or worked out, or evolved) originally for metallurgy.

    •

    To draw up (or elaborate, or develop, or work out, or map) a plan (or a programme),...

    •

    We formulate special compositions for ceramic bodies.

    •

    We are working up techniques for warm forging.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > разрабатывать

  • 9 passage

    passage [pαsaʒ]
    1. masculine noun
    • « passage interdit » "no entry"
       c. ( = lieu) passage ; ( = chemin) way ; ( = rue) passage
    • va plus loin, tu gênes le passage move along, you're blocking the way
       d. ( = fragment) [de livre, symphonie] passage
       e. ( = traversée) [de rivière, limite, montagnes] crossing
    ► passage souterrain underground passage ; (pour piétons) underpass
    * * *
    pasaʒ
    nom masculin

    une rue où il y a beaucoup de passage — ( véhicules) a street where there's a lot of traffic

    2) ( séjour)

    ‘passage interdit, voie privée’ — ‘no entry, private road’

    pour laisser or céder le passage à l'ambulance — in order to let the ambulance go past

    notons au passage que... — fig let's note in passing that...

    se servir au passage — lit ( en passant) to help oneself; fig ( légalement) to take a cut (of the profits); ( illégalement) to pocket some of the profits

    5) (à la radio, télévision, au théâtre)

    son passage dans la classe supérieure est compromis — he/she won't be allowed to move up into the next year GB ou grade US

    8) ( petite rue) alley; ( dans un bâtiment) passageway
    9) (de roman, symphonie) passage; ( de film) sequence
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    pɒsaʒ nm
    1)

    Ils s'arrêtaient de travailler au passage du train. — They stopped working as the train passed.

    Nous l'avons vu lors de notre passage à Brest. — We saw him when we passed through Brest.

    au passage (alors que l'on passe) — on the way, [remarquer] in passing

    au passage de; Il a été éclaboussé au passage de la voiture. — He was soaked by a passing car.

    Nous sommes de passage à Toulouse. — We're just passing through Toulouse.

    2) (= accès, chemin) way

    "laissez le passage" — "keep clear"

    "n'obstruez pas le passage" — "do not obstruct"

    3) (= prix de la traversée) passage
    4) (= extrait de livre) passage

    J'ai traduit un passage de ce livre. — I translated a passage from this book.

    * * *
    passage nm
    1 ( circulation) interdire le passage des camions dans la ville to ban trucks from (driving through) the town; une rue où il y a beaucoup de passage ( piétons) a street where there are a lot of passers-by; ( véhicules) a street where there's a lot of traffic; isoler les fenêtres pour empêcher le passage de l'air to seal the windows to prevent draughts GB ou drafts US;
    2 ( séjour) ton bref passage dans la ville a été très remarqué your stay in the town was brief but did not go unnoticed; lors de son passage ici il a oublié son parapluie when he was here he left his umbrella; un petit passage chez le teinturier ne lui ferait pas de mal a visit to the dry-cleaners' wouldn't do it any harm; après un bref passage dans la fonction publique after a short spell in the civil service;
    3 ( visite en chemin) attendre le passage du boulanger to wait for the baker's van to come; était-ce avant ou après le passage du facteur? was it before or after the postman had been?; manquer le passage des cigognes to miss the storks going over; le passage du prochain bus est à 10 heures the next bus is at 10 o'clock; je peux te prendre au passage I can pick you up on the way; il est de passage en France/dans notre ville he is passing through France/our town; des voyageurs de passage travellers who are passing through; des hôtes de passage short-stay guests; elle n'a que des amants de passage she only has casual relationships;
    4 ( franchissement) ‘passage interdit, voie privée’ ‘no entry, private road’; pour permettre le passage de la lumière in order to let the light in; les voitures se sont garées pour laisser or céder le passage à l'ambulance the cars pulled over to let the ambulance go past; on se retourne sur ton passage you make people's heads turn as you go past; notons au passage que… fig let's note in passing that…; se servir au passage lit ( en passant) to help oneself; fig ( légalement) to take a cut (of the profits); ( illégalement) to pocket some of the profits; passage en ferry/hovercraft ferry/hovercraft crossing; le passage à gué du bras de mer est possible à marée basse the sound can be forded at low tide; la voiture a peiné lors du passage du col the car had a hard time crossing the pass;
    5 (à la radio, télévision, au théâtre) c'est leur troisième passage à l'Olympia it's the third time they've been to the Olympia; ton passage sur scène/à la télévision a été très remarqué you made a great impact on stage/on the television; chaque passage de votre chanson à la radio vous rapportera des droits d'auteur you'll get royalties every time your song is played on the radio;
    6 ( chemin emprunté) ( par une personne) way; ( par une chose) path; prévoir le passage du tout-à-l'égout/de câbles to plan the route of the main sewer/of cables; pour aller jusqu'au sommet il y a plusieurs passages possibles there are several possible ways of getting to the summit; pousse-toi tu es dans mon passage move! you're in my way!; barrer le passage à qn to bar sb's way;
    7 ( à une situation nouvelle) passage (de qch) à qch transition (from sth) to sth; passage à la deuxième étape/la phase suivante progression to the second stage/the next phase; son passage dans la classe supérieure est compromis he/she won't be allowed to move up into the next class GB ou grade US; les rites initiatiques de passage à l'âge adulte the rites of passage into adulthood;
    8 ( petite rue) alley; ( dans un bâtiment) passageway;
    9 (de roman, symphonie) passage; ( de film) sequence;
    10 Équit passage.
    passage à l'acte Psych acting out; passage clouté† = passage pour piétons; passage à niveau level crossing GB, grade crossing US; passage obligé prerequisite (pour for); passage pour piétons pedestrian crossing, crosswalk US; passage protégé right of way; passage souterrain underground passage; ( sous une rue) subway; passage à tabac beating; subir un passage à tabac to be beaten up; passage à vide gén bad patch; (pour un acteur, artiste) unproductive period.
    [pasaʒ] nom masculin
    A.[MOUVEMENT]
    1. [allées et venues]
    prochain passage du car dans deux heures the coach will be back ou will pass through again in two hours' time
    laisser le passage à quelqu'un/une ambulance to let somebody/an ambulance through, to make way for somebody/an ambulance
    ‘passage de troupeaux’ ‘cattle crossing’
    2. [circulation] traffic
    3. [arrivée, venue]
    4. [visite] call, visit
    ‘le relevé du compteur sera fait lors de notre prochain passage’ ‘we will read your meter the next time we call’
    5. [franchissement - d'une frontière, d'un fleuve] crossing ; [ - d'un col] passing ; [ - de la douane] passing (through)
    ‘passage interdit’ ‘no entry’
    6. [changement, transition] change, transition
    le passage de l'hiver au printemps the change ou passage from winter to spring
    le passage de l'autocratie à la démocratie the changeover ou transition from autocracy to democracy
    7. [dans une hiérarchie] move
    le passage dans la classe supérieure ÉDUCATION going ou moving up to the next class (UK) ou grade (US)
    8. [voyage sur mer, traversée] crossing
    12. RADIO & THÉÂTRE & TÉLÉVISION
    B.[VOIE]
    1. [chemin] passage, way
    donner ou livrer passage à quelqu'un/quelque chose to let somebody/something in
    2. [ruelle] alley, passage
    [galerie commerçante] arcade
    3. [tapis de couloir] runner
    5. RAIL
    passage clouté ou (pour) piétons pedestrian ou zebra crossing (UK), crosswalk (US)
    C.[D'UN FILM, D'UN ROMAN] passage, section
    ————————
    au passage locution adverbiale
    [sur un trajet] on one's ou the way
    j'ai noté au passage que... I noticed in passing that...
    ————————
    au passage de locution prépositionnelle
    au passage du carrosse, la foule applaudissait when the carriage went past ou through, the crowd clapped
    ————————
    de passage locution adjectivale
    [client] casual
    ————————
    sur le passage de locution prépositionnelle
    passage à tabac nom masculin
    passage à vide nom masculin
    a. [syncope] to feel faint, to faint
    c. [intellectuellement] to have a lapse in concentration

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > passage

  • 10 pierwsz|y

    Ⅰ num ord. [klasa, rocznica, strona] first
    - pierwszy tom/rozdział the first volume/chapter, volume/chapter one
    - pierwsza osoba liczby pojedynczej/mnogiej Jęz. (the) first person singular/plural
    - pierwsza rocznica ślubu first wedding anniversary
    - pierwsza wojna światowa the First World War, World War I
    - student pierwszego roku a first-year student
    - pierwsza linijka od góry/od dołu the first line from the top/from the bottom
    - pierwszy dotarł do mety/był pierwszy na mecie he was the first to reach the finishing line/he came (in) first
    - kto skończył pierwszy? who was the first to finish?, who finished first?
    - wysunął się na pierwsze miejsce w konkursie he advanced to (the) first place in the competition
    - pierwszy raz tu jestem I’ve never been here before
    - jako pierwszy zabrał głos delegat Rosji Russia’s a. the Russian delegate was the first to speak
    - jako pierwszy w rodzinie skończył studia he was the first in the family to graduate
    - przyszła jako jedna z pierwszych she was one of the first to arrive
    - idź pierwszy! you go first!
    - z tych dwóch sugestii pierwsza wydaje się lepsza of the two suggestions, the first a. the former seems (the) better
    - lubię i horrory i thrillery, ale wolę te pierwsze I like both horror films and thrillers, but I prefer the former
    - ten pierwszy (z wymienionych)…, a ten drugi… the former…, and the latter
    - pierwszy i ostatni the first and the last
    - nie pierwszy i nie ostatni raz się kłócą a. to nie ich pierwsza kłótnia i nie ostatnia it’s not their first quarrel, and it won’t be their last
    - przyrzeknij, że to był pierwszy i ostatni raz promise (that) it won’t happen again
    - wszedł do pierwszej z brzegu kawiarni he walked into the first café he saw a. came across
    - pierwszy lepszy a. z brzegu a. z brzega [przedmiot] just any, any old; (osoba) just anyone
    - chwycił się pierwszego lepszego wykrętu he seized on any old excuse a. the first excuse that came to mind
    - to może zrobić pierwszy lepszy anybody can do it; every Tom, Dick, and Harry can do it pot.
    - nie był pierwszym lepszym Chińczykiem, ale admirałem he wasn’t just any old Chinese, but a Chinese admiral
    Ⅱ adj. 1. (początkowy) [śnieg, oznaka, wrażenie] first
    - pierwsze truskawki/pomidory early a. the first strawberries/tomatoes
    - (on) nie jest już pierwszej młodości he’s no longer in the first flush of youth; he’s a bit long in the tooth pot.
    - spadł pierwszy śnieg it’s the first snow of the season
    - powieść z życia pierwszych chrześcijan a novel about the life of the early Christians
    - w pierwszych latach XX wieku in the first a. early years of the 20th century
    - w pierwszej chwili myślałam, że to sen at first I thought it was a dream
    - od pierwszej chwili from the (very) first
    - od pierwszej chwili nie ufała mu she didn’t trust him from the (very) first
    - z pierwszego snu obudził go hałas na ulicy he was woken from the first, deep phase of sleep by noise in the street
    2. (główny) [nagroda] first, main; [oficer, sekretarz] first
    - pierwsza dama the first lady
    - pierwsza dama swinga przen. the first lady of swing
    - mąż Anny był pierwszą osobą w rodzinie Anna’s husband was the most important person in the family
    - pierwszy plan foreground; przen. foreground, forefront
    - na pierwszym planie in the foreground; przen. in the foreground, in a. at the forefront
    - stawiać kogoś/coś na pierwszym planie a. miejscu to put sb/sth first
    - pierwsze potrzeby basic needs
    - pierwszy po Bogu the most important person
    3. (najlepszy) [gatunek, klasa, kategoria, liga] first; [specjalista, znawca] foremost
    - był pierwszym uczniem w szkole he was the best pupil in his school
    - jeden z pierwszych ekspertów w dziedzinie psychologii dziecka one of the foremost experts on child psychology
    - chce być we wszystkim pierwszy he wants to be the best at everything
    - pierwszej klasy a. pierwszej wody aktor a first-class a. first-rate actor
    - samochód pierwsza klasa pot. some car pot.
    - film był pierwsza klasa! pot. that was some film!
    Ⅲ m (data) the first
    - pierwszy (maja) the first (of May)
    - dziś pierwszy lipca it’s the first of July a. July the first today
    - wyjechała pierwszego she left on the first
    - pensji z trudem starcza mi do pierwszego I find it hard to make ends meet
    Ⅳ pierwsza (godzina) one (o’clock)
    - spotkajmy się o pierwszej let’s meet at one
    - jest pół do pierwszej it’s half past twelve
    Ⅴ pierwsze (danie) first course
    - na pierwsze zjemy zupę pieczarkową we’ll have mushroom soup as a first course
    ■ być pierwszym do dowcipów/gotowania to love jokes/cooking
    - być pierwszym do pomocy to be eager to help
    - zawsze jest pierwszy do bijatyki he’s always getting into scraps pot.
    - do pracy był pierwszy he was never work-shy
    - pierwszy raz słyszę! a. pierwsze słyszę! pot. that’s news to me!, that’s the first I’ve heard about it!
    - pierwsze słyszę, że się pobrali I didn’t know they’d got married
    - na pierwszy rzut oka at first glance a. sight
    - na pierwszy rzut oka wszystko było w porządku at first glance everything was in order a. O.K.
    - od pierwszego wejrzenia a. spojrzenia at first glance a. sight
    - miłość od pierwszego wejrzenia love at first sight
    - poznać się na kimś od pierwszego wejrzenia (docenić) to see sb’s worth the moment one sets eyes on sb; (przejrzeć) to see through sb the moment one sets eyes on sb
    - po pierwsze first (of all), firstly; in the first place pot.
    - po pierwsze musisz skończyć studia first a. first of all, you must graduate
    - są dwa powody: po pierwsze…, a po drugie… there are two reasons: first(ly), …, and second(ly), …
    - kto pierwszy, ten lepszy przysł. first come, first served; the early bird catches the worm przysł.

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > pierwsz|y

  • 11 World War II

    (1939-1945)
       In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.
       In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.
       To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.
       The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.
       Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.
       Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.
       Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.
       Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.
       The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.
       The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.
       Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.
       In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.
       Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II

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